Taxila

When it comes to ancient history, Pakistan contains its fair share of treasures, one of the prominent of these being the ancient metropolis of Taxila. It is a city of the Gandharan civilization, sometimes known as one of its capitals, whose history can be traced from early microlithic communities at the Khanpur caves up to almost 1000 CE. Taxila was a hub of Buddhism, a centre of learning, an urban metropolis and a meeting point of various cultures, namely the Achaemenids, Greeks, Mauryans, Scythians, Parthians, Kushans, Huns and eventually the Muslims.

Although it was lost to time for nearly 1000 years following its decline, the metropolis and its multitude of treasures came to light in the late 1800s CE under Alexander Cunningham who was an antiquarian for the British Raj and more prominently under John Marshall, the first director of the Archaeological Survey of India in the early 1900s CE, a time when archaeology worldwide had became a much more disciplined field and new discoveries were coming to light from all over the world. Along with discovering the Indus Valley civilization, Marshall also did major work in Taxila which bring to light this ancient and mysterious culture.

LOCATION

The Taxila archaeological site is located in the province of Punjab, Pakistan, about 30 km north of the Capital Territory of Islamabad. It lies off the famous and historical Grand Trunk Road. The modern archaeological region of Taxila is composed of 18 sites of significant cultural value which were inducted as a whole into the UNESCO world heritage umbrella in 1980 CE.

THE REGION AROUND TAXILA INCLUDES SOME OF THE MOST FAMOUS GANDHARA SITES AND MONUMENTS.

Although the region fell out of favor with the increase in sea trade in later times, the preceding centuries of occupation meant that a massive amount of archaeological data still remains in the region which has been slowly and gradually unearthed from the British era down to the present day.

PRE-HISTORY OF TAXILA

The beginnings of human occupation in the area can be traced back to the microlithic hunters of the period before 3500 BCE, most importantly at three important caves discovered in 1964 CE by Elden Johnson of the University of Minnesota at Bhamala, Mohra Moradu and Khanpur. Particularly at the Khanpur cave, 2.9m (9 ft 7 inches) of cultural deposit was found dating from 900 CE all the way back to the stone age.

Early agricultural communities developed around 3500-2700 BCE as is evidenced from the small mound of Saraikala – “small” being relative as it is 305 m (1000 ft) east to west and 610 m (2000 ft) north to south – excavated by Ahmad Hasan Dani, a pioneering archaeologist of Pakistan. This site contains evidence of stone, bone and handmade pottery. The stone objects include microliths, axes and maceheads along with parallel-sided blades, side and end scrapers, and assymetrical flakes and arrowheads. Ground stone tools are also found such as chisels as well as saddle querns, grinders and pounders for daily use. Bone tools belonging to five categories have been found including awls, perforators, spatulas, points and pressure flakes. Pottery is the third industry with the earliest examples being almost all handmade and divided into four subcategories.

The Bronze Age begins in the region around 2700-2100 BCE and is also evidenced at Saraikala with no break between the end of the neolithic to the Bronze age deposits. There is even a transitional period between the two ages which includes mixed implements of neolithic and bronze age varieties.

TAKHSHASHILA

According to mythology Taxila is said to have been founded by the son of the brother of the legendary hero Rama, and stood on a hill that commanded the river Tamra Nala, a tributary of the Indus. It is held to have been an important cultural centre since inception, and the Mahabharata was reported to have first been recited here. The site of the first city at Taxila is known now as the Bhir Mound.

The city of Taxila, known in antiquity as Takhshasila, was a renowned site of Buddhist Gandhara, especially after Ashoka’s rule and in the 1st century CE Kushan era. The name Taxila is a Greek approximation of the original name. In Aramaic the city is known as Naggaruda, the ‘City of Cut Stones’ which is also the Buddhist name for the city, at least if taken literally i.e. taks meanining to cut or fashion something, which implies this name. However, in the same vein sila is also related to “sira” meaning “head” in Buddhist traditions and relates to the story of the Boddhisattva who voluntary had himself beheaded in sacrifice to a local Brahman in the city of Bhadrasila which the Buddha, while relating this story, is said to have linked to Taxila. The city of Sirkap also has a similar meaning i.e. sir or head and kap, to cut but this has not been proven satisfactorily yet.

 

Chu-cha-shi-lo is the Chinese name given to the region found in the accounts of the Chinese pilgrims. In Sanskrit, it is known as Takshasila, Takkasila or Takhashila and was also said to be the land of the Takhshas-a serpent race who could change their form at will to mingle with humans. Another Brahmanical tradition relates that it was the capital city of Taksha, son of Bharata, who was installed here as king.

The ancient city was revered as having one of the world’s first universities and flourished during the 1st to 5th centuries CE as part of the civilization of Gandhara under various rulers. A variety of subjects were taught there, including mathematics, sciences, philosophy, astronomy, medicine, politics, literature and military sciences although it was not an institutionalised center of learning but rather a combination of religious plus secular studies centered around monasteries.

Situated on “The Royal Highway” (as termed by the Greek Megasthenes) It was connected to Pataliputra (modern day Patna) in the north eastern reaches of the Mauryan Empire, western Asia (through Bactria), across the Indus River at Hund and through Kashmir with Central Asia by way of Srinagar, leading down to Haripur. This allowed a steady influx of people from all over the Asiatic regions into the area in the form of traders, settlers, merchants, preachers and invaders.

POLITICAL CONTROL

Taxila and the region of Gandhara witnessed the rule of several major powers of antiquity as listed here:

Achaemenids (~600-400 BCE)

Greeks (~326-324 BCE),

Mauryans (~324-185 BCE),

Indo-Greeks (~250-190 BCE),

Scythians (~2nd century to 1st  century BCE),

Parthians (~1st century BC to 1st century CE),

Kushans (~1st to 5th  century CE),

White Huns (~5th century CE)

Hindu Shahi (~9th to 10th century CE).

This was followed by Muslim conquests by which time we come to the medieval period of Indian history.

The Achaemenian rule in Gandhara lasted from the 6th Cent BCE to 327 BCE, when Alexander of Macedon invaded the region. However he wasn’t able to hold it for too long and his armies turned back towards their homes soon after and following this void, Chandragupta Maurya reconquered the region and began the Mauryan dynasty in c.321 BCE, the first unifying dynasty of India. This dynasty collapsed after the demise of its greatest ruler, Asoka (c.273-232 BCE).

The region hence fell into another vaccum which was filled by the so called Indo or Bactrian Greeks in 190 BCE, who were part of garrisons left behind by the conquering hellenes and had established themselves in the region of Bactria in modern day northern Afghanistan. They ruled for approximately a century and were followed swiftly by the Scythians (or Sakas) from Central Asia, who were in turn followed by the Parthians in the middle of the 1st Cent BCE.

Following another approximate century of rule by the Parthians, there was another invasion in 50 CE by the Kushans, who were a branch of the North Western Chinese Yue-Chi tribes and they conquered the Kabul Valley and Gandhara. Their heyday was in the time of Kanishka (c. 78 CE) who was their most renowned emperor and the Kushan empire (of which Gandhara was an important center) stretched from Merve in the west to Khotan in the east with the Aral sea bounding the north and the Arabian sea at the south. Two other prominent successors of Kanishka were Huvishka and Vasudeva.

The tail end of the Kushan rule saw a succession of short lived dynasties taking over control of the Gandhara region, and this resulted in a situation where the region was constantly being raided, invaded or in some way or the other in turmoil. Quick succession of rule by the Sassanids, Kidarites (or little Kushans) and finally the White Huns following the ebbing of Kushan rule led to the day to day religious, trade and social activity coming to a standstill.

ARCHITECTURAL HIGHLIGHTS

The stupas came to represent the zenith of buddhist architectural achievement in the region and of course, as with the artwork, they are also meant solely to promote the religious power structures. The stupas themselves were decorated with uncountable relief panels and friezes depicting religious stories and events further solidifying their role.

Some of the most prominent stupas include:

Dharmarajika Stupa

This is the largest Buddhist establishment in the Taxila region and dates from the time of Ashoka, the great Mauryan emperor who united India in the 3rd cent BCE and is known in some Buddhist sources as Dharmaraj, the name which the site itself is associated with.

It is firmly believed by most scholars that Dharmarajika is one of the locations where the remains of the Buddha himself were buried and this makes it a relic depository stupa or Dhatu-Garbha stupa. Ashoka had an afinity to Taxila due to his governership of the area during the time of his father Bindusara and hence also chose this as one of the locations to re-inter the remains of the historical Buddha.

The current site is the second reconstruction over the original Ashokan stupa, the first one occuring in the post earthquake period in the Kushan era (1st Cent CE) and the other much later. The original stupa was presumably smaller and humbler over which the existing dome was established, with radiating support walls like wheel spokes holding up the dome itself. The dome is 45 feet in height inside a 150 ft square having a diameter of approximately 115ft on average, not including the processional path.

Kunala Stupa

The legend associated with this stupa connects it to Kunala, son of Ashoka. Kunala was then governor of Taxila and his step mother lusted for him. He rebutted her advances and in her rage she sent a fake missive by Ashoka to Taxila asking the administrators to blind Kunala. Kunala accepted the punishment even though he was guiltless, and afterwards led the life of a wandering mistrel, singing the story of his misfortune anonymously. He managed to make his way to Ashoka while wandering India, and Ashoka, upon hearing the song knew it to be his son and the story to be the truth and accepted him back, after which Kunala’s sight was miraculously restored at Bodh Gaya.

The Stupa at Taxila was established to commemorate that legend although the existing remains cover an older stupa which has not been dated yet. The latest remains are dated to the 3rd-4th Cent CE.

Jaulian Stupa

This 2nd cent CE establishment is a highly decorated and compact construction which is situated in the neighborhood of the city of Sirsukh, rising 300 ft above the Taxila valley and within view of Sirsukh. The name Jaulian means “Seat of Saints” in the local language, a name which has probably existed since antiquity. The Jaulian establishment is a later work and is very lavish, harkening to a time in the Buddhist history of the region when the superficial depiction of the Buddha image was at its peak. It has numerous chapels and votive stupas in its two courts and once housed massive Buddha sculptures as well. Its location is considered one of the most picturesque in the region.

 

Other sites include the Mohra Moradu complex, Jinna Wali Dheri and the recently re-excavated Bhamala stupa (a rare cruciform stupa).

Mohra Moradu Stupa

Each of these establishments has associated monasteries and other auxiliary buildings creating a fairly uniform pattern of planning as with other Gandharan sites.

Although today Taxila is known as a “region”, in antiquity it was the name of a city which spread over 3 sites dating from the vedic era down to the late ancient period. Known now by place names where the remains were found, the cities in antiquity were probably all known with the same name i.e. Takshasila. These include the archaeological remains today at:

Bhir Mound

The archaeological remains of this, the 1st city, exist south of the existing Taxila Museum covering an area of approximately 1200 x 730 yards rising 65 feet above the Tamra rivulet, the main ancient source of water for the city and consist of 4 levels ranging from the 5th-6th cent BCE (Achaemenid period) to the 2nd cent BCE in the Indo/Bactrian Greek period.

Earlier excavations before the 1970s CE had revealed an organic layout without any evidence of fortifications. The masonry ranges from early rubble masonry in the earliest periods to more consistent masonry later on beginning in what is considered the Mauryan era (3rd-4th cent BCE). Thick coating of mud plaster is in evidence early on and later converts to lime plaster in the Indo-Greek period. Limestone and Kanjur stone are used for construction here.

Bhir Mound Excavations

The eastern excavations reveal dwelling houses and shops divided by streets and lanes. There is one mostly straight main street called First Street with other more meandering streets around it. The houses follow largely the same pattern of design and layout as rural houses of today do with a large open courtyard bound by rooms. The outer rooms faced the street and probably served as shops run by homeowners as evidenced by craft materials found from these rooms.

There is evidence of sophisticated drainage for both household water runoff as well as soak wells for sewage.

The most significant building is the Pillared Hall dating from 250-175 BCE, consisting of multiple spaces built over time. Terracotta reliefs and figurines depicting deities were found near this site leading to speculation that it would have been a religious shrine or temple, perhaps even one of the earliest Hindu shrines.

Excavations conducted from 1998-2000 CE by the Federal Archaeological Department of Pakistan unveiled regular town planning, wells and the city’s encircling mud and wood rampart which had not been discovered before. These excavations were in the western portion of the site.

We can tell that Bhir predates Gandhara proper due to no Gandhara sculptures being found there yet and the topmost levels revealing only early Indo-Greek coinage with clear Hellenistic influences as well as early Indian punch-marked and bent bar coins. Other finds include beads, seals, terracotta figures and ritual objects all exhibited at Taxila Museum.

Sirkap

The 2nd ancient city of Sirkap is thought to have been formally established by the Bactrian Greeks in the 2nd cent BCE. The name of the city is associated with a local legend of the hero Rasalu who fought the seven demon Rakhshasas. These were 7 sibling demons namely 3 brothers named Sirkap, Sirsukh and Amba, and 4 sisters named Kapi, Kalpi, Munda and Mandehi. Rasalu was the son of the Raja of Sakala (modern Sialkot) and on coming to the city he found that the demons were demanding sacrifices from the locals. He took it upon himself to kill the demons, vanquishing all but one which is said to still be in hiding. The city marks the spot where he killed the demon Sirkap.

The city has been attributed to the Greeks not only because of the archaeological remains but also because of various urban planning factors such as the flat ground, Hippodamian street pattern and geographical location with natural defences on all sides as well as the upper and lower cities (of which the lower is excavated) although these were also present in the earlier Indus cities. Nonetheless no buildings culturally related to the Greeks have been found such as temples, palaces or theatres which have cultural links to the Greek heritage. After the original planning was implemented, the subsequent settlement was quintissentially Indian.

The fortifications are massive with huge stone walls ranging 15ft to 21ft in thickness, with triple storey bastions at intervals. The fortifications run 6000 yards or 3 miles around the city and traverse the hills to the South as well.

City of Sirkap

7 occupation levels have been identified with the lowest one (7th) belonging to pre-Greek era and representing an outlying setlement of Bhir and the earliest one (1st) dating from the Scytho-Parthian era, a period of approximately 150 years (~90 BCE to ~60 CE) which saw conquests by the Scythians and then the Parthians in quick succession. Some areas of importance include the Royal Residence, Sun Temple, Apsidal Temple, Double Headed Eagle Stupa and the Jain Temple

Sirsukh

Founded in the 2nd half of the 1st cent CE, the Kushan city of Sirsukh was probably established either to shift the populace away from the earthquake ruined remains of Sirkap, or to establish a new capital to testify to the Kushan conquest.

It is a roughly rectangular city which is in the open plain with no natural defenses but with solidly built limestone fortifications having round towers at regular intervals, one of the first instances of round fortifications outside of the European continent. This was probably adopted by the Kushans during their interaction with Europe on their western borders.

Although an important part of the archaeological landscape, the site has not been properly excavated due to local farming in the area which would need to be heavily disrupted in order to facilitate the excavations. However the narrow strip of fortifications around the Lundi rivulet which hugs the walls on one side have revealed coin hoards of not just the Kushan rulers but also dating to the time of the Mughal emperor Akbar, showing that the city continued to function at least 1000 years after its original foundation.

 

DECLINE OF THE METROPOLIS

Although the general view has been that the White Huns or Hephthalites were the cause of destruction in Gandhara, subsequent evidence has shown this to not be the whole case. During the time when the White Huns were gaining ascendency, there was a revival in the Brahamanic religion in India proper and Vishnu and Shivaite cults were gaining prominence. This was seen as a resurgence of the old faith as a response to the 1000-year dominance of Buddhism in the region, a religion that had become a shadow of its former self, with the decadence and opulence of the monasteries and stupas overtaking its original message.

At this time Buddhism had traveled far north into China and in India itself the strength of Hinduism was waining. The incoming White Hun rulers, although perhaps not physically disruptive to the region, were nonetheless religiously inclined towards Shivaism, and it is for this reason that their patronage of Buddhism in Gandhara was nonexistent.  Since the entire character of this region was based around the unifying element of Buddhism and monastic life, an almost sudden decrease in royal patronage led to the vast and opulent monasteries with their scores of students and monks being unable to sustain themselves. The urban nature of Taxila declined as the unifying religion became less and less stable and eventually, not due to force but due to a simple lack of resources, the monastic complexes of Taxila along with the urban life they generated, fell into disrepair and decay, as mentioned by XuanXang in his chronicles dating from the 7th century CE.

Nonetheless even though the Urban life vanished, the rural life of the region continued even up to Mughal times, with the nearby Margala pass continuing to serve (to this day) an important route from East to West as it did in antiquity.

Although the physical remains of Gandhara disappeared from Taxila as their lifeblood was sapped away, its geographical nature continued to keep it occupied in parts, with the name being converted to the modern Margala (via Persian language during the Mughal era) and the urban pattern being replaced by the fortified hill outposts which dot the landscape today. Indeed even the current place names such as Jaulian (Seat of Saints) and Bhir-Dargahi (from “Pir” or saint meaning ‘Sacred home of the Saint’) show that its religious nature continued to shift even as the entire cultural landscape changed. Indeed even today there are shrines of Muslim saints in close proximity to or in some cases (like Mohra Moradu) right within the older monastic establishments. This shows that while the outward signs of Taxila as a center of Gandhara civilization did indeed vanish, the soul of Taxila as a spiritual center lived on, adapting itself to a new paradigm.

 

Takht-i-Bhai:

The ostentatious structure and imposing relics of the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bhai (Throne of Origins) has captivated a large number of locals and tourists who have flocked to see the ancient site which dates back to early 1st century AD.

Listed in the World Heritage List, it is considered one of the most well-structured Buddhist monasteries in Gandhara district.

It is perched about 500 feet atop a small hill, about 2 kilometers east of the Takht Bhai bazaar in Mardan district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), once known as the heart of the Gandhara civilization, which attracts tourists, historians, archaeologists and Buddhists from across the world.

The Buddhist complex and the village, as locals say, is named after the two wells found on top of the hill near the complex, however, majority believe that takht means throne and bhai means water in Persian language.

“We believe that it was named after the spring located on the left side of the Buddhist site,” Habib khan, a local resident tells Dawn.

The historical site is an archaeological wonder, considered to be significant because of its unique design.

“The site is extremely important for its integrity and unique state of conservation; important also for its antiquity, being built certainly during the 1st century CE, as proven by the important inscriptions bearing the name of Gondophares (20-46 CE),” Director of the Italian Archaeological Mission in Pakistan, Dr Luca Maria Olivieri says that Gondophares was a Parthian king of the Suren house, from Sakastan, or Sistan (a Suren general defeated the Roman forces in the battle of Carrhae, in today’s Turkey, in 53 BCE, where 20,000 Romas were killed and 10,000 captured).

“Soon after Gondophares, Takht-i-Bahi was under the control of Kujula Kadphises, the first Kushan king. The site remained in use certainly until Late Antiquity (7th CE),” he adds.

He says that the site is symbol of architectural complexity of a Buddhist monastic complex, and it should be considered a wonderful introduction to Gandharan Buddhist architecture, a must stop for tourist heading towards Swat.

The grandeur of its architecture and serenity of its location leaves inerasable traces in the minds and hearts of visitors.

“It is really a perfect place for those who love history, antiquity and archaeology. The architecture and its engineering is of high class. It really inspires me and I invite every Pakistani to come and see this monument,” says Hamza Iqbal, a tourist from Lahore.

A group of college students from Peshawar were also busy observing various sections of the monastery.

“I am a second year student of Archaeology and seeing this great Buddhist site is a unique experience. The architecture is astonishing, it shows how highly advanced those people were in civil works and engineering,” Junaid Ahmad, an archaeology student tells Dawn.

The influx of tourists is a good source of earning for the local transporters, shopkeepers and restaurant owners especially during the months between September to April.

“During the peak season, we take Rs. 200 to 300 for one side from Takht-i-Bhai bazaar to the Buddhist site and often make seven to ten trips and earn a handsome amount,” says Iqbal Ali, a chingchi rickshaw driver.

 

Buddhist Era in the Valley of Swat

The Indo-Greeks (those Greek rulers who occupied the seats in India after the downfall of the Mauryas) and the Scythian or had its relations and economic ties with them. Menander, among the Indo-Greeks occupied the Swat valley. It was later handed over to a sub-king Antimachus II. At the death of Menander his wife Agathocleia ruled at first in her own right and later jointly with her son. In order to counterbalance the influence of Antimachus- who assumed independence at Arrachosia (around Ghazni) – and other descendants of Diodotus, she appointed Zoilus I, a member of her family, as a sub- king in the Swat valley. Zoilus ruled briefly in Swat; for he was went to Arachosia, on the death of Antimachus II, to regain it. After Zoilus I, the known sub-king of Swat is Apollodutus who was overthrown by the Saka chief Maues.

 

Another Scythian tribe, the Sai of the Upper lli and different from the Scythians of the Jaxatas valley for other areas west of them, also reached and occupied Swat and the adjoining area. It was soon after 100 B.C. that Maues, the first known Saka King in India, followed the Indo-Greek rulers in Swat valley and Gandhara by overthrowing Apolodotus from the area.

 

Kadphises I, leader of the Kushans who were from the nomads race of Central Asia, seized vast territories extended to the south of Kabul river and established his rule. During the reign of the Kushana dynasty in the west and south of Swat the factual position whether Swat became an integral part of the Kushana Empire or retained it own independent status is uncertain. It is most probable that Swat or its petty chiefs had been a tributary Kushana.

When the boundaries of theTurki Shahi kingdom of Kabul were extended from the border of Sistan to northern Punjab, in the middle of the seventh century A.D., Swat was annexed in the process in about 745. The Turkey Shahi kingdom of Kabul was overthrown by Yaqub bin Lais in 870. The Hindu Shahi dynasty established its rule after the downfall of the Turkey Shahis, and with the passage of time extended boundaries of its kingdom. Information about Swat of the Hindu Shahi reign is also scanty. Nevertheless the Bari Kot incription of the reign of Jayapaladeva found on a hill to the north of Bari Kot hints at Swat being a part of the Hindu Shahi or at least under their over-lordship at the time. However, the question that whether Swat remained an integral part of the Hindu Shahi kingdom or not, is not easy to settle.

When the Hindu Shahi rule was sweft away by the Muslim under Mahmood of Ghazna, Swat was also not spared. The Muslim attacked Swat (ca. A.D.1001-1002), it seems, after the defeat of Raja Jaipal and besieged the reigning Raja Geera near Udigram . The traditions and legends make a fantasy and romance of the fall of the fortress by stating that the fortress, after withstanding repeated assaults by the forces of Mahmud, finally surrendered when the King’s daughter, who was in love with one of Mahmud’s general, revealed the place from where the fort got its water supply. Consequently, the supply was cut down, which forced the garrison to fight.

After the occupation of the valley by the Muslims, people from deferent pukhtun tribes settled in Swat. They came to be known Swati Pukhtuns. They established their rule for centuries. Practically, they remained independent and out of the sphere of the neighbouring Muslims rulers of Afghanistan and India throughout their occupation.

The sixteenth century proved turning point in the history of Swat as the Yusufzai Pukhtun occupied the land. At that time, the last decade of the fifteen-century, Swat was in the possession of the Swati Pukhtuns and Sultan Uwais was its chief ruler. Though the Yusufzais established matrimonial relations with the Sultan, they were ambitious for the valley. They worked out their plan, foiled defensive measures of the Swaties by a stratagem and occupied Lower Swat. By the sixteenth century Lower Swat was in the possession of the Yusufzais.Their advance came to a halt for the time being.

The Yusufzais resumed their advance during the reign of Humayun, the Mughal ruler of India, and Sultan Uwais and most of the old Swati Pukhtuns were compelled to leave their possessions in Upper Swat. Upper Swat was taken by the yusufzais. Though the Yusufzai did not make their advance toward the mountainous area of the Swat Kohistan, they continue their inroads in the other bordering areas, they extended their occupation to the territories of Gwarband, Puran, Chakisar and Kanra as well.

While the Yusufzais gained footing in Swat, Babur made himself master of Kabul. Collision between the two sides was unavoidable, because one of Babur’s routs to India fell within the domain of the yusufzais. With the intentions of attacking the yusufzais, Babur marched for Swat and dismounted in between the water of Punjkora and united waters of Jandol and Bajawar. But he refrained from advancing in to Swat. Instead of arms he used diplomacy and tactics and left for Ashnaghar from Bajawar.

The Yusufzais of Swat retained their independent position during Babur’s, Kamran’s and Humayun’s reign. Swat remained un-penetrated by the Mughals till Akbar’s time. Akbar ascended the throne in 1556, but he did not succeed to rule over Swat. In December 1585 Akbar sent an army to conquer Kashmir and another army was sent under the command of Zain Khan Koka in to Bajawar and Swat.

Akbar’s imperialism led to fighting. The Mughal forces sent under the command of Zain Khan faced stiff resistance and suffered great hardships. Zain Khan asked for reinforcements. The reinforcements, sent under the command of Raja Birbil and Hakim Abul Fateh, enter Swat in 1556 with great difficulty. Chakdara was made the base and foundation of a fort was laid there. From there the combined forces made their bed for Buner. But they were taken to task at Karakar defile. The Mughal forces met disaster. Raja Birbil lost his life along with eight thousand Mughal soldiers. They, however, made another bid under the command of Zain Khan and fought in Bajawar and Swat from 1587 to 1592 but without any real or lasting success.

Jahangir and Shah Jahan did not make bid for Swat. In Aurangzeb’s reign the Swat’s Yusufzais came to the help of their brethren in the plains, in 1667, who were fighting against the Mughals. In reprisal, the Mughals Commander-in-Chief entered the Swat valley and destroyed a village but returned in haste. The Swatis retained freedom throughout the Mughal period and also during the reign of the Durranis and the Sikhs.

With the annexation of the Punjab and occupation of Peshawar by the English, a new phase in the history of Swat began. Swat remained independent. It became a harbour of refuge for out laws and for refugees. And opponents of the colonial rulers from the British occupied territory; and a centre of inti-British sentiments. The Pukhtun under the English control constantly got inspiration from Swat to rise against the English.

The landmark was the formation of a government in Swat in 1849. Anxious for their independence, the Swati chiefs got alarmed with the British power at their doorstep. They held jigas and at last installed Sayyad Akbar Shah as the king of Swat. He died on 11 May 1857.

The year 1857, year of the War of Independence in India, passed off without disturbance in Swat because the king of the Swat State died on 11May 1857. Swat itself plunged in to civil war and remained entirely preoccupied with its own affairs. The attitude taken up by the Akhund of Swat, at this time, also favoured the British Government.

After 1857, the Swatis had no had no significant collision with the British until the Ambela campaign in 1863 when the British forces made their advance through the Ambela pass, in October 1863, in order to pass through Buner territory and crush the followers of Sayyed Ahmad Brailwi, in their colony, at Malka. Their advance was blocked and the tribes of Buner and Swat rose en mass.

The Imperial Government ordered that 15 Novembere 1863 should complete the operation, but it received telegram after telegram from the frontier, begging for more and more troops. Combination of the tribes firmly resisted the mighty British forces and gave them tough time for about two months. The Imperial power failed but its diplomacy worked. A truce was concluded and tribes dispersed.

The Swatis remained peaceful, after the Ambela war. They made no attempt, on the whole, against the Imperial Government till the Akhund of Swat, on January 1877, because the Akhund prevailed over the situation, despite great pressure upon him. In 1895, the internal developments once more resulted in a collision and stiff fighting between the Swatis and the British forces when the Swatis resolved to block the passage of the British forces, through their country, to Chitral and Umara khan of Jandol. When Umara Khan ignored the warnings and advice of the British officials at Chitral, Gilgit, Peshawar, or those with the Asmar boundary mission, the authorities ordered mobilization at Peshawar, of the First Division of the field army under Major-General Sir Robert Low as the Chitral Relief Force of some 15,000 men to implement orders.

A proclamation informed the tribes about the causes for the passage of the forces through their territory. They were assured that if they remained neutral and did not try to molest the passage of troops no harm would be done to them or to their property, and that government had no intention of annexing their country. Disregarding the Britishers proclamation, the Swatis held all the three passes from which the troops could enter Swat en route Chitral.

The Chitral Relief Force left Nowshera on 1 April 1895, under the command of Sir Robert Low. To keep the enemy divided, it was decided that Mora and Shah Kot passes be threatened and the main attack should be made on the Malakand, the strategy adopted some four centuries earlier by the Yusufzais themselves against the then defender of Swat. The attack was carried out on third of April. The tribesmen, most whom were unarmed, defended themselves with great gallantry, against the well-equipped and well-organised massive British troops. They continued their resistance and stopped the advance of the troops and artillery of the largest State of the world till 1895. The Britishers succeeded in making their advance and for the first time since the days of Zain Khan leader of Akbar’s armies, a host from the south entered the green belt of the Swat valley. They established garrisons at Malakand and Chakdara. The Political Agency of Dir and Swat was also instituted with its head quarter at Malakand, which was given under the direct control of the Central British Indian Government because of its significance.

At the flight of Umara Khan of Jandol, the British Indian Government reinstalled Sharif Khan as the Khan of Dir. All the territories previously occupied by Umara Khan were bestowed upon him and he was raised officially to the status of the Nawab of Dir.

It was easy to win hearts of the people. They considered presence of the British Indian authority as a common danger. Emotions ran high and within the passage of barely two years the most formidable revolt against the British arms took place that was ever witnessed even in the north -west Frontier of India. There was great unrest not only in swat but throughout the tribal belt on north- west border of the British Indian Empire In such a time the Sartor Faqir appeared in the upper Swat in July 1897. He claimed that his mission is to turn the British off the Malakand and out of Peshawar.

The English gave little importance to the new movement at first, but gravity of the situation could no longer be ignored towards the end of July. The troops stationed in the neighborhood were alerted and were asked to be ready for action at the shortest notice, and on 26 July 1897, the guides were summoned from Mardan.

The Sartor Faqir started his march from Landakai, on 26 July, for Malakand and Chakdara. His standard became a rallying point for thousands of fighting men from Upper Swat, Buner, the Uthman Khel country and even more distant parts. On the British side, the Guides arrived from Mardan at Malakand on the other day, 27 July, after their famous march. By 28 July the mobilisation of more troops in India was ordered. Heavy fighting continued at both the places, actually almost never ceased, until Malakand was relieved on the 1st August and Chakdara on the second.

Releasing the severe nature of the uprising, the Governor General in Council sanctioned the dispatch of the Malakand Field Force, on 30 July 1897, for holding Malakand and the adjacent posts and for punishing the tribes involved. For the support of the Field Force immediate formation of a Reserve Brigade was also decided early in the August 1897. The first and the last punitive expedition in the Swat valley was led.

The forces reached Mingawara on 19 August 1897, after facing stiff resistance at various places up the valley and after bearing heavy losses especially of H.L.S. MacLean and Lieutenant R.T. Greaves. Reconnaissances were made up to Gulibagh and the Ghwarband pass. After a stay for four days at Mingawara, the forces went back.

The severe nature of the fighting at Kota and Naway Kalay near Landakai at the time of the punitive expedition up the valley and its significance to the British can be judged from the fact that the British government awarded her highest award Victoria Cross to Lieutenant-Colonel Adams and Viscount Fincadtle, whereas Lieutenant MacLean was deprived due to his death in course of fighting, near Naway Kalay. Five person were awarded the Order of Merit.

The Swatis by their uprising of 1897,not only compelled the mighty British arms for a full week to fight against untold odds, but turned the year of the Diamond Jubilee of the English successful emergence from the Indian War of Independence 1857 in to surely one of the most troublous year in all Indian history.

During the post-Malakand War years, the Sartor Faqir, however, had made no significant armed struggle against the British Indian Government in Swat. Due to the intermittent struggle and faction fights within Swat and against the Nawab of Dir and the role of some of those that were influential but were ambitious for the ruler-ship and were in good terms with the Government, notable collision did not occur. It was in 1915, that once more a bid was made, after the formation of Swat State, though not with success.

ITINERARY

Day 01- Arrival to Islamabad and transfer to the hotel ,if it is early flight explore around . Hotel

Day 02 – Drive to Taxila,visit Taxila Museum and few sides ,visit of Truck decorated garage,after drive

to Peshawar . Hotel

Day 03 – Explore Peshawar old city  .Hotel

Day 04 – Drive to Swabi,Charsada,Takht Bhai to Swat. Hotel

Day 05 –Visit of Budhkhara ,Barikot etc . Hotel

Day 06 Drive back to Islamabad .Hotel

Day 07 –Transfer to the airport ,trip end

1526 – 1739 A.D -Mughal Empire

The arrival of people from the Central Asian nations such as the Turks and Mongols was a significant turning point in the history of Pakistan. The Qalandars (wandering Sufi saints) from Central Asia, Persia and Middle East preached a mystical form of Islam that appealed to the Buddhist and Hindu populations of Pakistan. The concepts of equality, justice, spiritualness, and secularism of the Sufi strain of Islam greatly attracted the masses towards it. The Sufi orders or triqas were established gradually, over a period of centuries. Pakistan was a place of great cultural and religious diversity. The Muslim technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, teachers, theologians and sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world to Islamic Sultanate in South Asia. The Muslim Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting the millions of native people to Islam.

 

The Mughals were the descendants of Persianized Central Asian Turks (with significant Mongol admixture) and would establish a formidable empire over the breadth of South Asia and beyond. The Mughal Empire included Pakistan and reached as far north as eastern Afghanistan and as far south as southern India. It was one of the three major Islamic empires of its day and sometimes contested its north western holdings such as Qandahar against invasions from the Uzbeks and the Safavid Persians. Although the first Mughal emperor Babur favored the cool hills of Kabul, his conquests would lay the foundations for a dynasty that would hold sway over South Asia for over two centuries. Most of his successors were capable rulers and during the Mughal period the Shalimar Gardens were built in Lahore (during the reign of Shah Jehan and the Badshahi Mosque was erected during the reign of Aurangzeb. However, Aurganzeb was a controversial emperor, who was accused for his persecution of those that refused to convert to Islam. Dangerous criminals were at times set free because they were Muslims. The advent of a tax on Non-Muslims and the forceful conversions of Hindu and Sikh communities in the Pakistan region created laid the building blocks for a region that was going to have a large Muslim majority. Aurangzeb was also known for his desecration and destruction of particular symbolic Hindu temples as well as the execution of the 9th Guru of Sikhism. One notable emperor, Akbar the Great was both a capable ruler and an early proponent of religious and ethnic tolerance and favored an early form of multiculturalism.

 

Pakistan still bears marvellous architectural monuments built by the Mughal emperors. During the Mughal period, the cities of Delhi and Lahore were made the capitals of the empire. The Taj Mahal and other architectural marvels were the results of the growth of Islamic culture and rule over the South Asia. The Mughals also implemented federal regulations including taxation, social welfare reforms, justice, development of the transport and agricultural system and water canals. The mansabdar system gained prominence during the Mughal Empire and was used to implement a form of ranking military official and landowners throughout the empire and in many ways inspired similar systems in other major Islamic empires of the day such as the Ottoman Empire’s tanzimat reforms

 

Mughal Architecture in Pakistan

Between fifteenth to eighteenth century, a unique style of architecture developed in India, then under the rule of the Mughal empire. This particular style of architecture, that resulted in several great buildings like Taj Mahal, is a hallmark of the great historical legacy that has been inherited by the two new nations formed in the wake of partition of India.

 

The Unique Mughal Architecture

‘Mughal architecture’ refers to the unique architectural style that developed during the reign of Mughal rule in India between the fifteenth and eighteenth century. Its three most prominent centres were Agra, Delhi (both erstwhile Mughal capitals are in contemporary India) and Lahore in Pakistan, which was the occasional residence of their rulers. This style arose from the fusion of Indian and Islamic architecture and amalgamated many aspects of local arts and craft of the Northern India. It is characterised by round domes, wide halls, painted tiles and use of red and white marble. Its unique features include three walled ‘Iwan’ and the double dome and arch structures which developed during the zenith of Mughal architecture under Shah-jehan, who also built Taj Mahal.

 

Pre Mughal Mughal Architecture: Tomb of Shau-Rukh-e-Alam

The Tomb of Sheikg Rukn-ud-din Abdul Fateh, a Sufi saint better known as Shah-Rukh-e-Alam is situated in Multan. It is considered the oldest structure of architecture resembling a style that belong to the Tughlaq architecture, which is very nearly Mughal.

 

 

It was built in the fourteenth century. This architecture achieved its glory in the days of Mughal rule beginning sixteenth century. This Sufi shrine remains extremely popular, attracting over 100,000 visitors during the urs which is held to commemorate his death anniversary every year.

 

The Mughal Architecture Attractions of Lahore

Lahore host the most impressive samples of Mughal architecture within Pakistan. The largest of them is the Lahore Fort built in sixteenth and seventeenth century along with its famous Alamgiri Gate and Naulakha Pavilion.  Built on around 20 acres of land at the Northern end of old city of Lahore, this Fort has its origins in a 10th century structure, but most of its existing attractions were built during the Mughal Era, beginning with the laying of foundations duing Akbar’s reign, while the latest and the most prized tourist attractions of these, the Alamgiri Gate was built duing Aurangzeb’s time. Another tourist attraction in the fort is the Sheesh Mahal, which built by Mirza Ghiya Beg, father of Noor Jahan (wife of Jehangir) and grand father of Mumtaz Mahal (wife of Shah Jehan). Lahore Fort was captured from the Mughals by the Afghan Durranis, who lost it to Sikh Misls, from whom it was taken by Maharaja Ranjeet Singh. British paid their homage to Emperor Jehangir by gisting paintings of Madonna and Jesus, which are still there. Later, in 1849, they captures it from Sikhs. The Fort has thus been a witness of Indian history and is living document of how divisions of people in this great civilization led to colonization of India.

 

Then there is the Wazir Khan Mosque which was built in the 1630s. Another grand building is the Badshahi Mosque built during the reign of emperor Aurangzeb.

 

Mughal Architecture in Other Places

Shah-jehan Mosque of Thatta in Sind is another impressive structures belonging to the Mughal style of architecture. Another impressive structure of this style is the Rohtas Fort built near Jhelum by Sher Shah Suri, who did not belong to the Mughal dynasty but occupied the throne of Delhi by defeating the Mughal prince Humayun. The Mughal emperor, Jehangir buit a beautiful Hinar-Minar in Sheikhpura. After his death, his Mausoleum was constructed by his wife in Lahore.

 

Jehangir’s son, Shah-jehan’s period was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He constructed Lahore fort, including the Sheesh Mahal and the Moti Masjid. Later, Aurangzeb, who imprisoned his own father, Shah-jehan and killed his borthers to occupy the Mughal throne built the Alamgiri Gate and Badshahi Mosque there.

 

All these structures are a treat to the eye and great places to visit. They remind one of the golden age of Mughal rule and the prosperity of the land in those days. They are all a must watch if you are visiting these places. Newer buildings such as Lok Virsa Heritage Museum in Islamabad have tried to replicate some features of Mughal architecture

we have design  below an itinerary for 8 days  Islamabad ,Peshawar and Lahore

ITINERARY

Islamabad,Lahore and Peshawar Tour 

7 Nights and 8 Days

 

Day 01 – Arrival to Islamabad airport.

Transfer to Hotel. If an earlier flight we can explore around Islamabad. Today we can visit Faisal Mosque, Daman Koh, Old Saidpur Village and Pakistan monument at Shakar Parian

Day 02 – Visit to Peshawar

Today after breakfast we will drive through the historical ancient Grand Trunk Road to Peshawar approximately 184 km, en route you will visit a part of ancient Grand Trunk road just before Taxila. In Taxila we will visit few sites and Taxila Museum. Taxila is historically known as Takshashila and is a city that dates to 5th century BCE. The recorded history of Taxila starts from 6th century BC, when this Gandharan Kingdom became part of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. After this you will be back on the GT Road towards PeshawarpassingAttock Fort, Attock Bridge with junction point of Kabul River and Indus River. Hotel in Peshawar

Day 03 – Explore the oldest historical part of Peshawar.

Today after Breakfast you can explore the old part of Peshawarfull of hustle bustle Including Peshawar Museum,lslamia Collage, Qisa Khawni Bazzar, Mohbat Khan Masjid and Mohallah Sethian etc .Dinner at famous local Charsi Tikka Restaurant at Namak Mandi. Hotel in Peshawar

Day 04 –Drive to Lahore via Motorway

Following early breakfast, you will be driving towards Lahore on motorway approximately 500 km. Enroute visit historical Katas Raj Temples located in Chakwal and Khewra Salt mine which were discovered by Alexander the Great’s horses . Hotel in Lahore

Day 05 – Explore The famous historical Moghul City

Today you will visit BadShahiMosque, Lahore Fort, Minar Pakistan and Wazir Khan Masjid. If time permits can visit the holy shrine of Data Darbar too.  Hotel

Day 06 – 2^nd day to explore around Lahore

Visit to Lahore museum, Jahangir Tomb ,Shalimar Garden and by late afternoon flag ceremony at Wagha border .Hotel in Lahore

Day 07 – Drive back to Islamabad via GT Road

Following breakfast start driving toward Islamabad via Grand Trunk Road approximately 260 km. Enroute visit tohistorical HiranMinar at Shaikhapura  and Rohtas Fort .Hotel in Islamabad

Day 08 – Transfer to airport. Trip ends